Follow
International Journal of Current Microbiology and Applied Sciences (IJCMAS)
Home Editorial Board Current Issue Special Issue Archives Indexing Submit Article
Instruction to Authors Manuscript Charges Copyright Form Model Manuscript Process Flow (Time Frame) FAQ
Reviewer Guidelines Selection of Reviewers Join our Team of Reviewers Apply as Reviewer Reviewer Login
Editorial Review Policy Embargo Policy Ethical Expectations Consent For Identifying Information Informed Consent Manuscript Withdrawal Policy Peer Review Process Plagiarism Policy Ethical Violations Appeal Policy Against Editorial Decision Advertising Policies Authorship Policy
Access Policies Authorship Publication Policy Publication Ethics Complaints Policy Confidential Information Conflicts of Interest Policy Consent for Copyrighted Material Copyright Policy Corrections and Retractions Digital Preservation Policy Research On Human And Animal Studies Open Access Policy
Publication Ethics Contact
IJCMAS is now DOI (CrossRef) registered Research Journal. The DOIs are assigned to all published IJCMAS Articles.
Index Copernicus ICI Journals Master List 2023 - IJCMAS--ICV 2023: 95.56 For more details click here
National Academy of Agricultural Sciences (NAAS) : NAAS Score: *5.38 (2020) [Effective from January 1, 2020] For more details click here

Join as a Reviewer

Login as a Reviewer

Indexed in



National Academy of Agricultural Sciences (NAAS)
NAAS Score: *5.38 (2020)
[Effective from January 1, 2020]
For more details click here
ICV 2023: 95.56
Index Copernicus ICI Journals Master List 2023 - IJCMAS--ICV 2023: 95.56
For more details click here
Announcement

See Guidelines to Authors
Current Issues
Download Publication Certificate

Original Research Articles                      Volume : 14, Issue:11, November, 2025
PRINT ISSN : 2319-7692
Online ISSN : 2319-7706
Issues : 12 per year
Publisher : Excellent Publishers
Email : editorijcmas@gmail.com /
submit@ijcmas.com
Editor-in-chief: Dr.M.Prakash
Index Copernicus ICV 2018: 95.39
NAAS RATING 2020: 5.38
Metrics and citations

Int.J.Curr.Microbiol.App.Sci.2025.14(11): 259-268
DOI: https://doi.org/10.20546/ijcmas.2025.1411.026


Emerging Viruses and Pandemics of the 21st Century: Lessons Learned and Strategies for Global Preparedness
Shyamala Ravikoti1, S. K. Mohanasundari2*, Mamta Choudhary3 and Annamreddi Leelavathi4
1Department of Microbiology, AIIMS Bibinagar. India 2College of Nursing, AIIMS Bibinagar. India 3College of Nursing, AIIMS New Delhi. India 4College of Nursing, AIIMS, Raipur, India
*Corresponding author
Abstract:

The 21st century has witnessed several significant viral outbreaks, beginning with SARS in 2002, followed by H1N1 in 2009, MERS in 2012, and the transformative COVID-19 pandemic in 2019. These events have underscored the critical need for rapid global responses, resilient healthcare systems, and effective international collaboration. Other notable viruses, including Ebola, Zika, Chikungunya, and Dengue, have further highlighted the interconnected challenges of global health. This review systematically examines literature from 2003 to 2023 to explore these pandemics, their impacts, and the global responses they elicited, with a focus on strategies for future pandemic preparedness. By emphasizing lessons learned—such as the value of early detection, swift response, and coordinated international efforts—the review seeks to enhance understanding of effective management and mitigation strategies. It highlights the vital role of robust healthcare infrastructure, comprehensive public health measures, and global cooperation in protecting against emerging infectious threats and safeguarding global health.


Keywords: Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome, Influenza A Virus, H1N1 Subtype, COVID-19, Zika Virus

References:
  1. Dhama K, Khan S, Tiwari R, Sircar S, Bhat S, Malik YS, Singh KP, Chaicumpa W, Bonilla-Aldana DK, Rodriguez-Morales AJ. Coronavirus Disease 2019-COVID-19. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2020 Jun 24;33(4):e00028-20. https://doi.org/10.1128/CMR.00028-20.
  2. Shereen MA, Khan S, Kazmi A, Bashir N, Siddique R. COVID-19 infection: Origin, transmission, and characteristics of human coronaviruses. J Adv Res. 2020 Mar 16;24:91-98. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jare.2020.03.005.  
  3. LeDuc JW, Barry MA. SARS, the First Pandemic of the 21st Century. Emerg Infect Dis. 2004 Nov;10(11):e26. doi: 10.3201/eid1011.040797_02.
  1. Jilani TN, Jamil RT, Siddiqui AH. H1N1 Influenza. [Updated 2022 Oct 25]. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2023  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK513241
  2. Vasantha K, Mohanasundari SK. Awareness Regarding Influenza A (H1N1) Among Adults, AIIMS, Rishikesh. CPHN.2016 1(2): 125-130. DOI: https://doi.org/10.21088/cphn.2455.8621.1216.10.
  3. Memish ZA, Perlman S, Van Kerkhove MD, Zumla A. Middle East respiratory syndrome. Lancet. 2020 Mar 28;395(10229):1063-1077. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(19)33221-0.  
  4. Vasantha K, Mohanasundari SK. Middle East Respiratory Syndrome. CPHN. 2016 4(2): 1(2): 163-165. https://doi.org/121088/cphn.2455.8621.1216.17
  5. De Wit E, van Doremalen N, Falzarano D, Munster VJ. SARS and MERS: recent insights into emerging coronaviruses. Nat Rev Microbiol. 2016 Aug;14(8):523-34. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrmicro.2016.81
  6. Lai CC, Shih TP, Ko WC, Tang HJ, Hsueh PR. Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) and coronavirus disease-2019 (COVID-19): The epidemic and the challenges. Int J Antimicrob Agents. 2020  Mar;55(3):105924.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2020.105924   
  7. Anupama DS, Gopichandran L, Choudhary M, D’Souza P, Venkatesan L. The impact of COVID-19 pandemic on mental health of health care workers in India: A qualitative phenomenological study. J Appl Sci Clin Pract. 2023;4:129-35.
  1. Sharma A, Tiwari S, Deb MK, Marty JL. Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2): a global pandemic and treatment strategies. Int J Antimicrob Agents. 2020 Aug;56(2):106054. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2020.106054  
  2. Choudhary M, Gopichandran L, Jyotishana KP. COVID-19-related anxiety and coping strategies among nursing professionals working in COVID intensive care unit: a cross-sectional survey. Indian J Psychiatr Nurs. 2022;19(2):104-108.
  3. Mohan, R., Pandey, V., Gangadevi, P., Kurien, N., Joseph, J., & Mohanasundari, S. K. (2022). Anxiety among adolescent during COVID-19 pandemic: a cross-sectional study. International Journal Of Community Medicine And Public Health, 9(10), 3757–3762. https://doi.org/10.18203/2394-6040.ijcmph20222568
  4. Sachdeva S, Choudhary M, Venketasan L. Mucormycosis in immuno-compromised patients: findings from an Indian case series. J Appl Sci Clin Pract. 2024;4(1):18-22.
  5. Mohan, R., Pandey, V., Gangadevi, P., Kurien, N., Joseph, J., & Mohanasundari, S. K. (2022). Anxiety among adolescent during COVID-19 pandemic: a cross-sectional study. International Journal Of Community Medicine And Public Health, 9(10), 3757–3762. https://doi.org/10.18203/2394-6040.ijcmph20222568
  6. Bloom DE, Cadarette D. Infectious Disease Threats in the Twenty-First Century: Strengthening the Global Response. Front Immunol. 2019 Mar 28;10:549. doi: https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2019.00549
  7. Silva LA, Dermody TS. Chikungunya virus: epidemiology, replication, disease mechanisms, and prospective intervention strategies. J Clin Invest. 2017 Mar 1;127(3):737-749. https://doi.org/10.1172/JCI84417 
  8. Martina BE, Koraka P, Osterhaus AD. Dengue virus pathogenesis: an integrated view. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2009 Oct;22(4):564-81. https://doi.org/10.1128/CMR.00035-09  
  9. Madhav N, Oppenheim B, (Gallivan M, et al. Pandemics: Risks, Impacts, and Mitigation. In: Jamison DT, Gelband H, Horton S, et al., editors. Disease Control Priorities: Improving Health and Reducing Poverty. 3rd edition. Washington (DC): The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank; 2017 Nov 27. Chapter 17. Available from:  https://doi.org/10.1596/978-1-4648-0527-1_ch17
  1. Abdelrahman Z, Li M, Wang X. comparative review of SARS CoV-2, SARS CoV, MERS-CoV and influenza A respiratory Viruses. Frontiers in immunology. 2020;11. https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2020.552909
  2. Peiris JS, Yuen KY, Osterhaus AD, Stöhr K. The severe acute respiratory syndrome. N Engl J Med. 2003 Dec 18;349(25):2431-41. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMra032498  
  1. World Health Organization. Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS). WHO. 2024. Available at:https://www.who.int/health-topics/severe-acute-respiratory-syndrome#tab=tab_1 [accessed 20 January 2024].
  2. Baldo V, Bertoncello C, Cocchio S, Fonzo M, Pillon P, Buja A, Baldovin T. The new pandemic influenza A/(H1N1)pdm09 virus: is it really "new"? J Prev Med Hyg. 2016;57(1):E19-22.
  3. Al Hajjar S, McIntosh K. The first influenza pandemic of the 21st century. Ann Saudi Med. 2010 Jan-Feb;30(1):1-10. https://doi.org/10.4103/0256-4947.59365  
  4. Poland GA. Vaccines against avian influenza--a race against time. N Engl J Med. 2006 Mar 30;354(13):1411-3. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMe068047  
  5. Milne-Price S, Miazgowicz KL, Munster VJ. The emergence of the Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus. Pathog Dis. 2014 Jul;71(2):121-36.  https://doi.org/10.1111/2049-632X.12166   
  6. Memish ZA, Perlman S, Van Kerkhove MD, Zumla A. Middle East respiratory syndrome. Lancet. 2020 Mar 28;395(10229):1063-1077. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(19)33221-0  
  7. WHO Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV) https://www.who.int/emergencies/mers-cov/en/
  8. WHO Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus: case definition for reporting to WHO. https://www.who.int/csr/disease/coronavirus_infections/case_definition/en/
  9. Shi Y, Wang G, Cai XP, Deng JW, Zheng L, Zhu HH, Zheng M, Yang B, Chen Z. An overview of COVID-19. J Zhejiang Univ Sci B. 2020 May;21(5):343-360. doi: https://doi.org/10.1631/jzus.B2000083
  10. Wu, Yi-Chia; Chen, Ching-Sunga; Chan, Yu-Jiuna,b,c,*. The outbreak of COVID-19: An overview. Journal of the Chinese Medical Association 83(3):p 217-220, March 2020. https://doi.org/10.1097/JCMA.0000000000000270
  11. Hiscott J, Alexandridi M, Muscolini M, Tassone E, Palermo E, Soultsioti M, Zevini A. The global impact of the coronavirus pandemic. Cytokine Growth Factor Rev. 2020 Jun;53:1-9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cytogfr.2020.05.010  
  1. Moghadas SM, Vilches TN, Zhang K, Wells CR, Shoukat A, Singer BH, Meyers LA, Neuzil KM, Langley JM, Fitzpatrick MC, Galvani AP. The impact of vaccination on COVID-19 outbreaks in the United States. medRxiv [Preprint]. 2021 Jan 2:2020.11.27.20240051. https://doi.org/10.1101/2020.11.27.20240051    
  2. Guner R, Hasanoglu I, Akta? F. COVID-19: Prevention and control measures in community. Turk J Med Sci. 2020 Apr 21;50(SI-1):571-577. https://doi.org/10.3906/sag-2004-146   
  3. Wilder-Smith A, Freedman DO. Isolation, quarantine, social distancing and community containment: pivotal role for old-style public health measures in the novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV) outbreak. J Travel Med. 2020 Mar 13;27(2):taaa020. https://doi.org/10.1093/jtm/taaa020  
  4. Kadanali A, Karagoz G. An overview of Ebola virus disease. North Clin Istanb. 2015 Apr 24;2(1):81-86. https://doi.org/10.14744/nci.2015.97269  
  5. Maganga GD, Kapetshi J, Berthet N, Kebela Ilunga B, Kabange F, Mbala Kingebeni P, Mondonge V, Muyembe JJ, Bertherat E, Briand S, Cabore J, Epelboin A, Formenty P, Kobinger G, González-Angulo L, Labouba I, Manuguerra JC, Okwo-Bele JM, Dye C, Leroy EM. Ebola virus disease in the Democratic Republic of Congo. N Engl J Med. 2014 Nov 27;371(22):2083-91. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1411099
  6. Nsio J, Kapetshi J, Makiala S, Raymond F, Tshapenda G, Boucher N, Corbeil J, Okitandjate A, Mbuyi G, Kiyele M, Mondonge V, Kikoo MJ, Van Herp M, Barboza P, Petrucci R, Benedetti G, Formenty P, Muyembe Muzinga B, Ilunga Kalenga O, Ahuka S, Fausther-Bovendo H, Ilunga BK, Kobinger GP, Muyembe JT. 2017 Outbreak of Ebola Virus Disease in Northern Democratic Republic of Congo. J Infect Dis. 2020 Feb 18;221(5):701-706. doi: https://doi.org/10.1093/infdis/jiz107
  7. Dixit D, Masumbuko Claude K, Kjaldgaard L, Hawkes MT. Review of Ebola virus disease in children - how far have we come? Paediatr Int Child Health. 2021 Feb;41(1):12-27.  https://doi.org/10.1080/20469047.2020.1805260 
  8. TE, von Saint André-von Arnim A. Clinical presentation and management of severe Ebola virus disease. Ann Am Thorac Soc. 2014 Nov;11(9):1341-50. https://doi.org/10.1513/AnnalsATS.201410-481PS  
  9. Noorbakhsh F, Abdolmohammadi K, Fatahi Y, Dalili H, Rasoolinejad M, Rezaei F, Salehi-Vaziri M, Shafiei-Jandaghi NZ, Gooshki ES, Zaim M, Nicknam MH. Zika Virus Infection, Basic and Clinical Aspects: A Review Article. Iran J Public Health. 2019 Jan;48(1):20-31.
  10. Mlakar J, Korva M, Tul N, Popovi? M, Poljšak-Prijatelj M, Mraz J, Kolenc M, Resman Rus K, Vesnaver Vipotnik T, Fabjan Vodušek V, Vizjak A, Pižem J, Petrovec M, Avši? Županc T. Zika Virus Associated with Microcephaly. N Engl J Med. 2016 Mar 10;374(10):951-8.https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1600651   
  11. Kazmi, S.S., Ali, W., Bibi, N. et al.A review on Zika virus outbreak, epidemiology, transmission and infection dynamics. J of Biol Res-Thessaloniki 27, 5 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40709-020-00115-4
  1. Rawal G, Yadav S, Kumar R. Zika virus: An overview. J Family Med Prim Care. 2016 Jul-Sep;5(3):523-527. https://doi.org/10.4103/2249-4863.197256  
  2. Mourad O, Makhani L, Chen LH. Chikungunya: An Emerging Public Health Concern. Curr Infect Dis Rep. 2022;24(12):217-228. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11908-022-00789-y  
  3. Suhrbier A. Rheumatic manifestations of chikungunya: emerging concepts and interventions. Nat Rev Rheumatol. 2019 Oct;15(10):597-611. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41584-019-0276-9  
  4. Ojeda Rodriguez JA, Haftel A, Walker, III JR. Chikungunya Fever. [Updated 2023 Jun 26]. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2023 Jan-. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK534224/
  5. Horwood PF, Buchy P. Chikungunya. Rev Sci Tech. 2015 Aug;34(2):479-89. https://doi.org/10.20506/rst.34.2.2373   
  1. Hasan S, Jamdar SF, Alalowi M, Al Ageel Al Beaiji SM. Dengue virus: A global human threat: Review of literature. J Int Soc Prev Community Dent. 2016 Jan-Feb;6(1):1-6. https://doi.org/10.4103/2231-0762.175416  
  2. Thomas SJ, Strickman D, Vaughn DW. Dengue epidemiology: virus epidemiology, ecology, and emergence. Adv Virus Res. 2003;61:235-89. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0065-3527(03)61006-7
  3. Oliveira LNDS, Itria A, Lima EC. Cost of illness and program of dengue: A systematic review. PLoS One. 2019 Feb 20;14(2):e0211401. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0211401  
  4. Schaefer TJ, Panda PK, Wolford RW. Dengue Fever. [Updated 2022 Nov 14]. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2023 Jan-. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK430732/
  5. Guzman MG, Halstead SB, Artsob H, Buchy P, Farrar J, Gubler DJ, Hunsperger E, Kroeger A, Margolis HS, Martínez E, Nathan MB, Pelegrino JL, Simmons C, Yoksan S, Peeling RW. Dengue: a continuing global threat. Nat Rev Microbiol. 2010 Dec;8(12 Suppl):S7-16. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrmicro2460  
  6. Sundararaman T, Muraleedharan VR, Ranjan A. Pandemic resilience and health systems preparedness: lessons from COVID-19 for the twenty-first century. J Soc Econ Dev. 2021;23(Suppl 2):290-300. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40847-020-00133-x    
  7. Preparedness and Resilience for Emerging Threats (PRET). https://www.who.int/initiatives/preparedness-and-resilience-for-emerging-threats. Accessed 20 January 2024.
  8. World Health Organization. Preparedness and Resilience for Emerging Threats (PRET).last updated 26 Apr 2023. https://cdn.who.int/media/docs/default-source/pret/who_pret_module_1_14042023_draft.pdf?sfvrsn=b1b3306e_2&download=true . Accessed 20 January 2024
  9. Building health systems resilience for universal health coverage and health security during the COVID-19 pandemic and beyond: WHO position paper. Geneva: World Health Organization, 2021. http://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/346515 (accessed 20 Jan 2024).
  10. From worlds apart to a world prepared: Global Preparedness Monitoring Board report 2021. Geneva: World Health Organization, 2021. https://www.gpmb.org/docs/librariesprovider17/defaultdocument-library/gpmb-annual-report-2021.pdf?sfvrsn=44d10dfa_9 (Accessed 20 January 2024).
  11. Choudhary M, Gopichandran L. Post Covid-19 Complications: A New Dimension of Awareness for Healthcare Workers. Asian J Nurs Educ Res. 2021;11(4):455-458. https://doi.org/10.52711/2349-2996.2021.00110
  12. Madhav N, Oppenheim B, Gallivan M, et al. Pandemics: Risks, Impacts, and Mitigation. In: Jamison DT, Gelband H, Horton S, et al., editors. Disease Control Priorities: Improving Health and Reducing Poverty. 3rd edition. Washington (DC): The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank; 2017 Nov 27. Chapter 17. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK525302/ doi: https://doi.org/10.1596/978-1-4648-0527-1_ch17   
Download this article as Download

How to cite this article:

Shyamala Ravikoti, S. K. Mohanasundari, Mamta Choudhary and Annamreddi Leelavathi. 2025. Emerging Viruses and Pandemics of the 21st Century: Lessons Learned and Strategies for Global Preparedness.Int.J.Curr.Microbiol.App.Sci. 14(11): 259-268. doi: https://doi.org/10.20546/ijcmas.2025.1411.026
Copyright: This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike license.

Citations
Home | Terms of Use | Copyright Form 2012-2020 Copy rights reserved IJCMAS. Powered by ThinkNEXT Technologies